Executive Function

 Supporting Evidence for Executive Function Development Flip Cards 

The developmental milestones and timelines presented in these flip cards are grounded in current neuroscience research and evidence-based practices in pediatric development. These references represent decades of study on how executive function skills emerge, develop, and can be supported throughout childhood and adolescence. 

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168.

• Key Finding: Foundational research on executive function development from infancy through adolescence

Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2012). Hot and cool executive function in childhood and adolescence. Child Development Perspectives, 6(4), 354-360.

• Key Finding: Distinction between emotional and cognitive executive function development

Best, J. R., et al. (2011). A developmental perspective on executive function. PMC, 3058827.

• Key Finding: Executive function skills more predictive of school readiness than IQ scores

Manelis, A., et al. (2023). A canonical trajectory of executive function maturation from adolescence to adulthood. Nature Communications, 14, 6922.

• Key Finding: Executive function continues developing until around 18-20 years old

Willoughby, M. T., et al. (2017). The functional emergence of prefrontally-guided working memory systems in four- to eight-year-old children. Neuropsychologia, 96, 31-47.

• Key Finding: Working memory system development crucial for academic success

Johansen, H., et al. (2018). Rapid infant prefrontal cortex development and sensitivity to early environmental experience. PMC, 6157748.

• Key Finding: Critical early brain development and environmental sensitivity in executive function emergence

Center on the Developing Child, Harvard University. (2024). What is Executive Function? How Executive Functioning Skills Affect Early Development.

• Key Finding: Executive function develops through experience and supportive relationships

Roebers, C. M. (2017). Executive function and metacognition: Towards a unifying framework of cognitive self-regulation. Developmental Review, 45, 31-51.

• Key Finding: Integration of executive function and metacognitive development

Diamond, A. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4–12 years old. PMC, 3159917.

• Key Finding: Evidence-based interventions for supporting executive function in school-age children

Meltzer, L. (2018). Executive Function in Education: From Theory to Practice. Guilford Publications.

• Key Finding: Executive function applications in educational settings

Blakemore, S. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2012). Decision-making in the adolescent brain. Nature Neuroscience, 15(9), 1184-1191.

• Key Finding: Continued prefrontal cortex maturation through age 25

Steinberg, L. (2014). Age of Opportunity: Lessons from the New Science of Adolescence. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

• Key Finding: Adolescent brain development and implications for executive function expectations

Sadozai, A.K., Sun, C., Demetriou, E.A. et al. (2024). Executive function in children with neurodevelopmental conditions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nature Human Behaviour, 8, 2357–2366.

• Key Finding: Executive function development varies across different populations and conditions

PMC. (2022). Adolescent resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic: A review of the impact on developmental milestones. PMC, 9311591.

• Key Finding: Adolescent resilience and adaptation during pandemic disruptions

Harvard Center on the Developing Child. (2024). Executive function and self-regulation: Updated guidance.

• Key Finding: Environmental factors supporting executive function development

Activity-based intervention research. Multiple studies (2020-2024) showing superior effectiveness of activity-based approaches.

• Key Finding: Activity-based interventions show superior effectiveness compared to traditional approaches

• Garon, N., et al. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134(1), 31-60.
• Key Finding: Executive function emerges in infancy and develops rapidly in preschool years

• Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78(2), 647-663.
• Key Finding: Executive function in preschool predicts academic success

• St Clair-Thompson, H. L., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Executive functions and achievements in school: Shifting, updating, inhibition, and working memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59(4), 745-759.
• Key Finding: Different executive function components contribute uniquely to academic achievement

• Luna, B., et al. (2015). An integrative model of the maturation of cognitive control. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 38, 151-170.
• Key Finding: Protracted development of cognitive control through adolescence